Representation of Animals in Roman Art of the Middle Ages



Fig.1 Roman pottery of

 the Middle Ages



Fig.2 Fragment of a crockery 
from the early medieval houses in

Nerva's Forum

(9th-11th centuries)





     The Roman art of the Middle Ages incorporates a highly stylized representation of animals, exposing combinations of geometric patterns and natural body parts (eg. eyes, legs, wings). The animals illustrated are mostly birds, but there are also some horses, dogs or sheep. Furthermore, the animal images appear as decorative elements of the pottery (Fig.1 and Fig.2), in which the particular animals are centrally positioned, integrated and surrounded by various geometric forms (eg. curved or straight lines, circles etc). In addition, there are also examples of some lamps in the form of animals (Fig.3), exhibiting the idea of motion (eg. regarding the horse’s leg posture) and stylization (eg. the addition of wings and frontal, circular forms to the horse’s body). The emphasis on movement can even be seen in the pottery decorations (eg. Fig.4), revealed through the animal’s pose too (eg. legs positioned one in front of the other and head up high, with open mouth and “irritated” expression). The animal is again surrounded by various, repeated patterns, increasing the vivacity of the actual combination (eg. animals and geometric shapes), which appears as a single decorative element. Therefore, the depiction of animals in medieval Roman art includes a compact mixture of various forms, flawlessly merged together and rendering a unique style of decoration.

Fig.3 Lamps from historical collections

(6th-8th centuries)

Fig.4 Roman pottery of the

Middle Ages

STONE

The “Crypta Balbi” exhibits a variation of objects from the Roman age. Architectonical and decorative motives are much observed on stone materials. Roman craftsmen ornamented their buildings, temples and other types of edifices with symbols, vegetation patterns and in general abstract forms.

The collection holds a considerable selection of marbles, which belonged to fallen walls or buildings in general.  One example that could simplify what the exhibit, referring to stone, shows is one of the many “Screen Panels” carved on the end of the 8^th Century beginning of the 9^th Century. The picture shows us the accuracy in the detail of the geometric forms they present. Moreover, similar to vegetation forms, these round forms intertwined with straighter lines create a dynamic and rhythmic pattern. The screen panel is divided in two and between both there is symmetry. 

Another example is also a “Screen Plan” derived from the 6^th Century Chancel Screens and belongs to the first quarter of the 9^th Century. However, the marble and composition of this piece of art is not completely conserved, yet it shows interesting decoration patterns. The composition is based on geometrical and vegetative elements. Two squares tangled surrounded by flowery forms. On the inside a cross, each of its ends carved as if it was Greek Ionic order capitals, over another floral – like cross creating a star shape of eight.

COMPOSITION

Fig.2 Shell-shaped pottery

(6th century)

Fig.1 Roman pottery of

the Middle Ages

    

                                      



                                              



Fig.3 Altar cross from the Velia

(8th century)

      The medieval Roman art includes a dense assortment of the decorative elements used (eg. geometric patterns and naturalistic shapes). Thus, each shape is consistently interrelated with the other forms, creating a harmoniously unified whole. For instance, with regard to pottery decoration (Fig.1), the geometric elements repeat and intersect each other, imposing a certain rhythm to the actual composition (eg. figure on the left). On the other hand, the human portrait (eg. figure on the right) is depicted only with a single, curving line, incorporating linear patterns painted over the face and also in the background of the figure. Even though the forms used are quite simple, they are arranged in a rather complex manner, encompassing different directions and “links” between them. Furthermore, various segments of a shell- shaped pottery (Fig.2) show combination of human and animal figures (eg. the piece in the middle), overlapping and plainly depicted  (with a single line). There are very few linear patterns and the man appears bigger than the animal- a possible implication of superiority and force.



Fig.4 Small pilaster

(9th century)

     Moreover, a decorative section of an altar cross (Fig.3) presents an angel, saint and a sheep, portrayed only with a single contour and each of them separately placed, without any overlapping of forms. This indicates a symbolical depiction of religious importance, rather than a focus on the decorative function. In addition, the architectural style comprises of compositional principles similar to the one of Islamic art- rationally interconnected geometric shapes (eg. curved lines) with no clear beginning or end (Fig.4). Thus, the Roman art of the Middle Ages entails various functions of art: a purely decorative one (eg. pottery) and an allegorical one (eg. altar cross), expressed through the geometric patterns and animal or human figures shown.

Kirila Cvetkovska



LINES

          Simple lines were used to form an abstract design in Roman pottery.  Vegetation, animals, symbols, and decorative motifs were used in these abstract forms.  The lines in many of the pieces seem to have been drawn in an uncontrolled manner.  In other words, the lines are not precised, nor refined.  For instance, the two potteries in fig 1 have many exaggerated lines.  The lines on the broken bowl on the left are more controlled to design the profiled face.  The facial feature of the eyes and nose are large in comparison to the head.  The pottery on the right, the lines of the free formed paint brush strokes varies in size and tone.  You can see exactly where the brush stokes began when the line was drawn.  At start of the line, the pressure of the brush stroke created a mark of a darker value.  The pattern on this bowl is equally balanced composition in design but the lines are obviously not intended to be perfectly drawn.  Between the 11° and the twelfth century, pottery was massed produced because of the population growth in Rome.  This explains why the lines are free formed in an abstract manner.

In fig 2, color was added to complement the design on the bowl, but the lines are still free formed and abstract. The brown contour lines of this vegetation motif are more flat and solid while the blue color lines are light and transparent.  The curved   leaves complements the unrefined rim of the bowl.  The rim on the right side of the bowl is thicker than the the left side.  Therefore I think that elaborate, ornate lines would be an odd design on this bowl. I have easily duplicated by hand the three leaf motif.  It took less than twenty minutes.This is a simple design is idea for a mass production process.

 The design of this screen panel from the early 9° century has lines that are straight and curved.  Only the straight lines forms a star.  The cross symbol and the vegetation motif contains straight lines and curves.  Unlike the pieces in fig 2, these lines create a more intricate, complex design. The surface of the stone is not smooth.  If you look close at the texture, the straight lines of the star, the lines are not precise.  The design gives the illusion of refinment but the design is not exact.  The anchor-shaped vegetation was carved with different sizes and length to the leaf.

Stacie Johnson

CERAMICS

Crypta Balbi illustrates the urban culture of Rome in the period from the year one thousand to the fifteenth century. Here we can find different types of tableware, as well as kitchen utensils and supplies needed for travelling, which are made out of clay. There are ceramic pots, vases, plates and even figures.   Some of those are lovely decorated with patterns, geometrical figures or animal representations.

Figure 1

(Figure 1, XI century)

The bowls that are presented in the exhibition were probably used to serve food on the table. Bowls are very high, have a round shape and two handles on the side. At the bottom of the bowls there are depicted birds.

The one on the right, which was preserved better, shows a blue coloured bird shown in profile. It has a rhombus on its chest with a smaller rhombus and cross inside. The artist also depicted a landscape, which is making a circle on the inner side of the bowl. There are two leaves, which also might present wings. The one on the left has squared patterns and the leaf on the right is only patterned half way.

The bowl on the left also shows a bird, with a different style. Parts of the bird’s body are more recognizable. The bird is also coloured blue and as feathers the artist drew horizontal lines on the bird’s body. This bird is also depicted in profile, so we see only one wing that has a dark brown outline and brown patterns on the wing. Next to the bird there is a decoration that can remind one of a tree or a bush. It looks like trunk with four branches on each side.

Figure 2

 Kitchenware mostly required an earthen cooking pot (Figure 2), which was placed on a tripod over the fire. Probably it was used to cook soups. Another type of pottery called “testo” (Figure 3), had a shape of a bell that was covered with embers to make a small oven for cooking cakes, pies and bread. The demand for pottery was increasing in Rome, and towards the tenth century, technique and shape standardization took place. For keeping water, the Romans would use an amphora (Figure 4), that had thin walls and long handles. But after the eleventh century it disappeared, probably because the water distribution system was built.

Elena Migurenko

Representation of Animals in Islamic Art

Brocche-recipienti ornitomorfi

ceramica non invetriata e dipinta

Afghanistan, VIII-XII sec. d.C.

   The representation of animals in Islamic art reveals an assortment of naturalistic body parts and repeated geometric patterns. The animals depicted are mostly birds, lions and horses, used as decorative elements for plates, bowls, vases, floors or architecture. Each figure retains its natural shape and has a certain set of recurring patterns, uniformly distributed across the surface of its body. Moreover, the animal images decorating ceramic bowls are frequently combined with human characters, illustrating an event such as a hunt or a particular procession. Some of the vases and drinking bowls are even made in the shape of an actual animal (eg.bird), still incorporating different patterns painted over the objects. However, the great variety of figural motifs used imposes a high stylization of the animals presented, increasing the vivacity of the art works. In addition, the Islamic art also includes depiction of fantastic figures composed of animal bodies and human heads. This suggests a certain relation to mythology and creative exploitation of the artistic patterns and forms used. Eventually, all of these features reveal the Islamic unique approach to art, entailing a dynamic, but yet completely balanced representation of motifs and animals in particular.

Brocche-recipienti ornitomorfi

ceramica non invetriata e dipinta

Afghanistan, VIII-XII sec. d.C.

Ceramiche invetriate

Iran, IX-X sec. d.C.

Stone

Stones such as marble, red limestone and black veined alabaster were used in the Islamic Art and Architecture. Art historians have found through the years a vast variety of decorative and symbolic works of art carved in stone. Generally, the architectonical motifs are richly carved with precious details. We can also experience that Islamic craftsmen continuously used calligraphy on their works. (Gardner's art through the ages: a global history by Kleiner, Fred S.)  A good example of the latter is this image of a “Slab” which can be found in the “Museo Nazionale Orientale Di Roma”. The observer appreciates geometric plant-like forms carved on a block of marble in low relief. We can divide the work of art into three parts; the artist uses calligraphy to frame the top part of the slab with the inscription in Arabic of “Nel nome di Dio il Clemente, il Misericordioso” which means “In the name of God the Compassionate, the Merciful”; the middle section is filled with twisted trefoil shapes, which one can see in many other similar works; the next and last part is composed by a thin band representing palm branches. This work dates from the XI to the XII and belonged to the “Palazzo di Mas’ Ud III” in Ghazni Afghanistan. From my personal opinion, the work brings to my mind: the mesmerizing palace of the “Alhambra” in Granada, Spain.

 (Gocciolatoio/Tavola offertoria. VII - VI A.C) 

Furthermore, another good example of the stone Art represented in Islamic culture is this second image “Gocciolatoio/Tavola offertoria” made out of red limestone in Yemen. It belongs to the VII – VI a.C period. The name of the work translated to English is “Drip offertory table” which tells us that this particular piece of work, representing the head of an animal, was created for sacred means. The breach on top of its head must have been carved with the purpose of making some liquid pass through it. However, its composition is simple except for the geometrical carved incisions, which define the animal’s features. 

Gabriela Valero 

Composition

    

Fig.1 Ceramiche invetriate policrome

Iran, IX-X sec. d.C.



Fig. 2 Lastra, marmo scolpino a basso rilievo

Afghanistan, fine XI-inizio XII sec. d.C
















    




    

    


Fig. 3 Ceramiche orientale policrome

Iran, IX-X sec. d.C.



     Islamic art is generally used for decoration, incorporating various geometric shapes as the most significant ornamental design. These shapes are used as patterns, rationally interconnected, but without a clear beginning or end. Furthermore, the decoration of ceramic plates and bowls usually includes a certain figure or a shape (eg.animal, man, circle etc.) placed at the centre, around which all of the other figures and forms are positioned (Fig. 1). This may indicate that there is always one crucial character or life segment, controlling the other circumstances and events. In addition, all of the geometric patterns used are symmetrical and often reflected. They are also repeated many times, extending continuously and creating a perfectly harmonious composition. This applies to architectural design (Fig. 2) too, including floral shapes and calligraphy as part of the decorative scheme. The particular letters are also integrated as repetitive patterns, placed around the figures and probably used as inscriptions (Fig. 3). Therefore, the juxtaposition of animal and human figures with various geometric shapes and calligraphy imposes the inventive aspect of Islamic art and its social context. Moreover, the geometric shapes, floral and animal images (Fig. 4) are also used for decoration of the drinking bowls, cups and vases. They are again interrelated and spread out with no distinct starting or ending point, still exposing a completely ordered system of figures and forms. This may even be an allegorical depiction of the mutual dependence on each other (eg.food chain) and the various natural relations between humans, animals and plants. In addition, the same compositional principles apply to the decoration of tiles (Fig. 5), reflecting rhythmic and vibrant depiction of figures or events. Thus, Islamic art has a decorative function primarily, with shapes expanding on and on, on their way to unity and concord.

Kirila Cvetkovska

Fig. 5 Mattonella a rilievo con figure di cavalieri,

giocatori di polo, Iran, fine XIII sec. d.C.



Fig.4 Rappresentazione di figure umane ed animali

Iran, VI-VII sec. d.C. 













Lines



Fig. 1 Giare, ceramica

Iran, VIII sec. d.C.



      In Islamic Art, lines were designed in geometric patterns and simple abstract shapes like arrows, triangles, circles, and three leaf clovers. The lines of the abstract shapes are not clean and straight, but are soft and flowy styled lines.  Though the lines are not precisely drawn, the art pieces still have a very elegant appearance.



      The lines created in the vase (Fig. 1) are indented into the clay to form a slight relief.  The relief gives a darker value to the color of the vase.  The lines add attention to the composition because the vase is basically one solid color except for the patina that has formed.  The line designs  are large circles in a formation on the top section of the vase.  A zig zag line is drawn around the lower mid section to add more interest to the vase.  The diamond shape design at the neck of the vase, which is a relief effect, compliments this zig zag line.                        

                                                                                

Fig. 2 Piatto con representazione di felino passante

Argento niellato, Iran, VI-VII sec. d.C.






Metal Plate (Fig. 2):  Black three leaf cloves were painted on the tiger with very small dotted line patterns in the background. The structure of five arrow tree is designed with soft curved lines.  The indented triangle shapes are irregular as the holes shaped in the Fig.3 art piece. These imperfect holes add more appeal to the composition because the heads and the bodies of the animals are not realistically formed.  The holes seem randomly shaped, especially for the eyes.   The silhouette of the 3 animals shows a soft lumps in the lines similar to a baked muffin or a loaf of bread.  

Fig. 3 Supporto di bruciaprofumi a protoni leonine, bronzo fuso

Iran, XI-XII sec. d.C.



         Stacie Johnson      


 









Ceramics

1) Cobalt-painted Bowl, Iraqi, IX cen., Harris Brisbane Dick Fund
2) Ceramica Invetriata  policroma tipo “Sari”, Iran X-XI secolo

Islamic ceramic pottery was and still is very popular all over the world. Arabs are using majolica (type of the ceramics), which has a smooth surface, lustre, thin walls covered with coloured glazes, and they have decorative relief adornments. Traditionally, artists would write phrases form Suras or Hadiths on the inner side of the plate or a bowl. With the spread of Islam, artists started to depict animals and humans.

The ninth century Iraqi Cobalt-painted bowl represents a traditional way of decorating. It is decorated with two repetitive phrases right in the middle of the bowl. The sides of it have circles that go on the outer side of the bowl. There are also two semicircular lines, as a contour of each circle (The Art of Islamic Pottery Ernst J. Grube p. 209-228, p. 210 – the sketch, The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin © 1965 The Metropolitan Museum of Art).  We can compare it with Iranian work of a later period. It is also a bowl, but instead of the writings we see the painting of a bird, that is coloured in with very bright colours, such as: orange, yellow and brown. The neck of the bird is decorated with horizontal lines, which create sort of a collar. The rest of the bird’s body is covered with dark spots with white dots inside. Around the bird we see flower-like drawings, which are connected to each other.

Mattonella a forma stellare, dipinta a lustro, dicante lung oil bordo un’iscrizione coranica, che cita quasi per interno la sura CX (Iran, Kashan, XIII secolo, Museo Nazionale D’arte Orientale ‘Giuseppe Tucci’, inv. N. 90 )

We also can find the representation of animals on the tiles. Tiles were usually used to decorate the floors. One of the examples that we could see on the exhibition was the tile in a shape of the octagonal star. The artist used only three colours: brown for the drawing, and blue and white for the writing on the side. In the middle Islamic artists depicted flowers and in the flowers we can see three animals that look like rabbits. Those animals have long ears, their bodies are covered with little spots and they are depicted, as if one is walking after the other. On the outline we can see writing from Sura: “In the name of merciful God, the Merciful! When God will give the triumph and victory and see that people enter God's religion in droves, then celebrate the praises of thy Lord and ask him for forgiveness, because He is the One who forgives a lot!” 

Elena Migurenko

Representation of Animals in Teotihuacan Art

     The Teotihuacan art includes a vibrant representation of animals, illustrated as symbolic characters with regard to religious or other cultural practices. There is a great variety of animals depicted, from birds and dogs, to monkeys, jaguars and serpents. However, these figures are shown in a rather unconventional way, reflecting combination of naturalistic and abstract shapes and forms. For instance, in paintings, the animals are shown as juxtaposition of geometric shapes (circles, rectangles etc.) and natural body parts (eyes, wings, legs etc.). The multiplicity of forms used adds more dynamics to the animal’s representation, evoking admiration and doubt at the same time. Furthermore, the sculptural illustration of animals incorporates force and power, exposed through the stylization of the actual figures and their high scale. Regarding this notion of supremacy, even the warriors were attaining animal attributes, shown through their various depictions as jaguars or other strong animals. Additionally, the image of animals is used as a decorative element for architecture, but also for vases, knives and pipes.